By Richard Wilding
The defeat of the Ottoman Empire in World War I left Britain controlling the three Ottoman vilayets of Mosul, Baghdad and Basra. However, because the British occupied Mosul after the armistice was signed, Turkey continued to claim the Mosul vilayet as theirs until 1926.
To counter Turkish claims, Britain sought to set up one or more semi-autonomous provinces in the predominantly Kurdish Mosul vilayet. In 1919, the British gave Shaikh Mahmoud from one of the leading Sufi dynasties of Kurdistan the nominal title of ‘Hukmdar’, or ruler.
The British officer Major Noel was sent to Sulaimani to set up a temporary system of administration under Shaikh Mahmoud. Noel formed a good relationship with the Shaikh and with the people of Sulaimani, where he is still fondly remembered to this day. However, in April 1919 he was replaced by Major Soane, a man of very different temperament, who imposed a more direct administration.
Sensing that he was about to lose much of his autonomy, Shaikh Mahmoud led an uprising against the British. He was joined in this rebellion by the Hamawand tribe, some sections of the Jaff tribe, and also the 16-year-old future Kurdish leader Mustafa Barzani.
After suffering a humiliating defeat at Tasluja outside Sulaimani, the British returned with reinforcements, defeating Shaikh Mahmoud at the Bazian Pass. Mahmoud was initially sentenced to death. Fearing that executing such a popular leader would turn him into a martyr and a focal point for future rebellion, the British later reduced his sentence to ten years’ imprisonment. He was to serve his term in exile in India, kept away from loyal supporters in Kurdistan.
The Treaty of Sèvres, signed on the 10th August 1920, formalised the partitioning of the Ottoman Empire, and included provisions for an independent Kurdish state. These terms stirred hostility back home in Turkey, where the treaty’s signatories were stripped of their citizenship.
The following year, Britain installed Emir Faisal of the Hijaz as King Faisal I of the newly created state of Iraq, comprising the former vilayets of Mosul, Baghdad and Basra. However, the Kurds in Sulaimani did not recognise this new ruler in Baghdad or accept their inclusion in the Kingdom of Iraq.
Turkey encouraged a series of Kurdish tribes to rebel against the British, appealing to their historic allegiances to Sultan and Caliph. Britain therefore needed to appoint a new Kurdish leader, similar to the new Arab leader in Baghdad, to quash Kurdish unrest and prevent Turkish incursions into Iraq.
Unable to find any other suitable candidate, the British reluctantly decided to bring Shaikh Mahmoud back from exile, with assurances of good behaviour. The rapturous reception that greeted him on his return to Sulaimani however, encouraged Shaikh Mahmoud to lead a second rebellion with even higher ambition. In October 1922 he proclaimed a Kingdom of Kurdistan, formed a cabinet and declared himself King.
When the Peace Conference in Lausanne opened on the 20th November 1922, the newly established government of Turkey under Mustafa Kemal Atatürk rejected the territorial losses imposed by the Treaty of Sèvres. The promise of a Kurdish State made two years earlier was off the table. Instead, a League of Nations Commission would survey public opinion in the Mosul vilayet, giving them only two options – to be part of either Turkey or Iraq.
In Sulaimani, witnesses testified against Turkey – a key factor in the Commission’s decision that Mosul vilayet and its Kurdish population should be included in Iraq. The difficult future for the Kurds within Iraq, is of course, another story.
Shaikh Mahmoud was exiled to southern Iraq in 1931 but was allowed to return to Darikaly village near Sulaimani in 1941, where he remained for the rest of his life, as an exile in his own country.
Shaikh Mahmoud died in 1956 but remains a hero to the Kurdish people to this day, regarded as a pioneer for future Kurdish leaders.
Richard Wilding
Richard Wilding is a curator, writer and film producer. He creates exhibitions, books and documentary films exploring the history and heritage of Kurdistan and other regions of the Middle East.
Since 2012, Richard has been Creative Director of the charity Gulan, which promotes Kurdish culture in the UK. In 2021, he was elected as a Fellow of the Royal Geographical Society, London.
Richard is currently producing a film about Shaikh Mahmoud and 100 years of Kurdish / British relations.
